Human Factor In The Aircraft Cabin Essay Example for Free

Human Factor In The Aircraft Cabin Essay The term â€Å"Human factor† has grown increasingly popular as the commercial aviation industry has realized that human error, rather than mechanical failure, underlies most accidents and incidents. Human factor involves gathering information and putting it into practice to produce safety, comfort and effective human use. This is then translated into design, training policies and procedures to help humans perform better. The issues on safety should be addressed by ensuring proper and effective communication strategies. Also the ability of the flight crew to maintain situation awareness which involves being aware of what is happening around and understand how information is to be put into action. Pilots should be well trained to handle and monitor flight automation and instruments to prevent confusion and errors during take-off and landing. Disciplinary measures should also be emphasized to avoid situations like drinking or neglecting duties. It is important to go over safety and emergency checklists to ensure emergency equipments and other features specific to the aircraft type are in order and report to the pilot after the preflight check. Before takeoff, unserviceable or missing items must be reported and rectified. The cabin must be monitored for unusual smell or situations and maintain precaution like keeping door locked while fueling. The crew should assist with the loading of baggage, check for size and dangerous goods. They then must do a safety demonstration and monitor passengers as they walk them through the safety procedures, and also secure the cabin by ensuring tray tables are stowed, seats are in upright position and seatbelts are fastened before takeoff. The key role of the flight attendant should be safety provision and provide a care giving and customer service to passengers. Presentation and personal appearance is important to inspire passenger confidence. The crew flight attendants are expected to be dressed well and be friendly. Human factor specialists should ensure the sidewalls are analyzed and improved for increased passenger comfort as well as modification of the in-flight entertainment system. The In-flight Service Manager (ISM) and Customer Service Manager (CSM) should report when the cabin is secure for takeoff and landing. This ensures proper management and safe effective operation during both normal and emergency conditions.

The Powerful Eunuchs Of China History Essay

The Powerful Eunuchs Of China History Essay Their stories are almost completely shrouded in mystery. These people are mentioned only as minute details in historical accounts, their lives often kept in seclusion from the world, probably even from history itself. These people play major roles in the unfolding of significant historical events, yet they are rarely even mentioned. From the shadows, they exercise their power. From behind the scenes, they carefully manipulate the government to their own interests. These incomplete men are very powerful. Yet, at the same time, they are pitiful. Their seemingly quick rise to power comes at a price, a price almost as valuable as their very lives. These people are called eunuchs. Eunuchs: An Introduction A eunuch, in general, is a term given to castrated men. However, for the purpose of this paper, the term eunuchs will be used to refer to Chinese eunuchs; more specifically, those that were in imperial service during the era of Chinas dynastic rule. Eunuchs served the primary function as guards and servants in womens quarters and to the emperors. But in time they gained power and control as they gained functions as advisers to the emperors of China (Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online 2010). In fact, in certain time periods, the eunuchs grew to be more powerful than the emperor. Indeed, the role of eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty has become an important portrayal of political society of that era (Hammond 2002). Castration started out as a form of punishment, particularly for the crime of rape. But as eunuchs became more and more popular and rich, poor families opted to have their sons castrated for a chance at a better life in the Imperial Court (Scholz 2001). From the definition itself, one becomes a eunuch by undergoing the process of castration. While castration is usually viewed as a gruesome and horrific procedure, there are some accounts that have actually romanticized it. In Piotr Scholzs Eunuchs and Castrati, there is a cultural account left by the emperors last eunuch, Sun Yao-ting pertaining to the delicate procedure of castration. In his account, he explains that the process starts by setting a date when the castration will be performed. He narrated that they would notify the person to be castrated that he must quickly urinate after the procedure so that his urethra would not be blocked and not get infected. The person, consequently then drinks lots of water to prepare for the ur ination. Then the castrator takes a rope and ties the one to be castrated in such a way that he was unable to move his hands or feet, (Scholz 2001, 137). After that, he prays for guidance with incense sticks. Then he moves on with the slicing of the organ. The mutilation is vividly described as fountains of red, white and yellow liquid gushing from the wound (Scholz 2001, 137). Then the castrator inserts a goose quill into the urethra of the castrated so as to retain the opening formed by the slit. Then finally, the castrator treats the wounds with tampons dipped in wax, sesame oil and paper. A few days later, after the castrated man urinates, and in essence his excretory system is functioning well again, he is checked if he is already cleared to go to the palace. Once all the preparations are complete, before he leaves for the palace, the castrator gives the castrated a package wrapped in oilpaper and instructs him on what to do with the package. The castrator says that for everything to go well, he must follow that set of instructions: When youre in the palace, put it in a bushel of grain, hang the bushel on the beam supporting the ceiling of your room and raise it a little higher each year. Then it will protect you and ensure you that you will grow every year. And remember one more thing: when you are near death, it must be with you in the grave or the six lines of your ancestors will be incomplete. Those who are neither man nor woman cannot be reborn!(Scholz 2001, 138). So basically, even after the castration process, there is a routine to be followed by the castrated . The responsibility of the eunuch to the part that has been separated from his has not been lost but must carry on till his death. Castration leads to several physical and supposedly emotional and mental changes among castrates. Depending on the age in which castration took place, eunuchs vary in characteristics. Often, males who are castrated earlier in boyhood generally do not obtain the male characteristics obtained during puberty. Facial hair and pubic hair do not grow and their voice remains high pitched and unchanged. Males, who are castrated well after their puberty, will still grow pubic hair despite the absence of facial hair. The pubic hair will however, be much more diminished. A common characteristic among eunuchs though is the characteristic of never going bald. (Wilson and Roehrborn) As such, eunuchs were unable to have heirs and were thus seen to be more trusted as it would prevent dynastic overthrows by their heirs. In fact, it was this very reason why the Chinese dynasties sought to utilize eunuchs as servants and attendants to the emperor and his family, and even other high-ranking officials in the government. Essentially, the main reason why people aspired to become eunuchs was the having the honor of working as an imperial attendant, which more often than not meant an improvement of economic status. On numerous occasions, fathers would have their sons castrated as early as seven years old in order for their sons to leave for the imperial palace as soon as they recover from the castration. Especially among poorer families, having someone from the family become a eunuch meant honor, and economic improvement. For the eunuch himself, becoming a eunuch meant indirect access to power and relationships with the higher officials. History of Eunuchs Historical anthropologic evidence proves that the earliest eunuchs emerged from the Shang Dynasty. According to Piotr Scholz Eunuchs and Castrati, In 1976 little figurines of servants (c. 9 cm in height) were discovered in the grave of Fu Hao, wife of Emperor Wu-ting (Wu-ding); they are the oldest known representations of palace eunuchs, (Scholz 2001, 129). This is proven by statues excavated in Lingjiatan. The statues excavated show no distinct sexual characteristics. Originally, castration was used very early as a form of punishment both for criminals among ones own population and for prisoners taken in war, (Scholz 2001, 131). Here it is clear that castration was not intended to be beneficial to the castrated as what has later turned out in the course of history. What is fascinating is how the paradigm shifted from the eunuchs being looked down upon, to them almost assuming most of the imperial powers. Such series of events will lead to famous rise of the eunuchs to their subtle fading. Sun Yao-ting (1902-1996), the last eunuch of Emperor Pu-I, tells of how he was insulted by a Chinese Republican officer with the line: Since time immemorial, you eunuchs have been the ruin of China! (Scholz 2001, 131). This was because, with regards to castration as punishment, it is most likely assumed that it was used early on as a substitute for the death penalty in cases involving political crimes, (Scholz 2001, 133). With this, as Piotr Scholz further writes: This allows us that eunuchs represented a political intelligentsia that did not conform to the notions of the dominant Confucian bureaucracy which was constantly trying to shape the empire in its own imageà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Scholz 2001, 133). The way it really was is therefore contradictory to the previous claim of the Chinese Republican who looked down on eunuchs when the fact that the reason for their castration was the fear of their intellect and political prowess comes into play. The eunuch Tsao Tsao (144-220 C.E.), son of eunuch Tsao Sung and grandson of eunuch Tsao Teng, even became the grand counselor and was a victorious general. Tsao Teng, the grandfather, have already been influential enough because he had already owned a large land and has served four emperors, but Tsao Tsao became part of the circle that helped Emperor Huan-Ti (r. 146-167 C.E.) to ascend the throne, following the murder of Huans predecessor, Liang Chi. (Scholz 2001, 143). Furthermore, when child emperor An-ti (106-125 C.E.) was enthroned, he was involved in every conceivable kind of intrigue at court. (Scholz 2001, 143). Because of this and through Empress Dowager Tengs help, he also gained favor and influence over the prince and next emperor Shun, such that during the reign of Emperor Shun (126-144 C.E.) of the Han Dynasty, the eunuchs reached the peak of their powers when they were allowed to adopt sons to succeed them and go to even greater heights. They even became personal secret aries (shang-shu) to the emperor, (Scholz 2001, 143). Ultimately, Tsao Tsaos son, Tsao Pei (188-227) soon ruled as emperor himself. However, with great power comes great responsibility, such that during the reign of Emperor Yuan Shao (189 C.E.) during the Han Dynasty, thousands of them [eunuchs] were slaughteredà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ in an attempt to curtail their influence, (Scholz 2001, 135). It is clear then that eunuchs got the point when they were feared even by the strongest imperial power, the emperor. But because Emperor Yuan Shao never succeeded in finishing the eunuchs off, their intellect was, rather than countered, utilized once more, thus marking the rebirth of the eunuchs shaping of the kingdom. By 800 C.E., the situation had reached a point where eunuchs have become a determining factor in choosing who was to accede to the imperial throne, (Scholz 2001, 146). Eunuchs had the preference of Buddhism over Confucianism because they found it congenial to their life. But in the course of the 9th century, as old doctrines were revived, Buddhist doctrine and practice was decreed as un-Chinese, (Scholz 2001, 148). In 903, eunuchs who had accompanied the emperor to their last day were killed in a bloody massacre led by Chu Chuan-chung (Zhu Wen, 907-923), the founder of the later Liang Dynasty, (Scholz 2001, 149). With the collapse of the Ming Dynasty, the eunuchs collapsed as well. Due to the high level of corruption in government, it was running out of capital. Inflation compounded the impact of dwindling resources. As local administrative costs rose, the imperial government levied irregular taxes to meet pressing financial obligations (Atwell 1988). With this, the decline of the influence of eunuchs started as a new era ensued in which the court no longer regarded the aristocratic ideas of status and ritual, espoused by many eunuchs, as vital to maintaining the interests of the state. These ideas, in fact, degenerated into a seemingly ineffectual court etiquette, (Scholz 2001, 149). But its not as if though they were stripped of all their power in the court, they were still assigned positions and sent to expeditions. The difference is that they no longer directly affected the decisions of the emperor. Eunuchs were perceived as very corrupt officials. Despite having only meager salaries, upon their deaths, their massive fortunes were discovered. An example is the eunuch Li Yung-chen (1583-1628). When he was executed in 1628, his confiscated properties were said to have been worth 270,000 taels of silver. Ming historians contrast this to the annual wage for some manual workers in Beijing at the turn of the sixteenth century, was approximately 4.2 taels (Atwell 1988). This was due to the fact that they were known to misappropriate funds. Such practices were extremely common, to claim military supplies for 100,000 named soldiers when there were in fact only 50,000 troops, and only have less than half of the 50,000 needing the supplies. The court thus pays for four solders for one soldier (Atwell 1988). Such is only one example of the great corruption the eunuchs made. Eunuch influence in economic activities was made possible because they fulfilled the capricious demands of their emperors despite the growing financial needs of the state. Their positions allowed the eunuchs to build a base, which in turn strengthened their positions in the economic as well as political and military worlds. The power over labor, land and taxes made it impossible not to cooperate with eunuchs. This brought them to great power. Using such privileges, they were able to exploit the sy stem further to increase power and wealth (Crawford 1961). By 1644, it is estimated that there were 70,000 eunuchs in the palace alone and 100,000 in the entire empire (Crawford 1961). At this point, castration became widespead and despite the emperors decrees against such, castration still became common for poorer families who could not afford to send their children to school (Crawford 1961). Compounded by the fact that the emperor was not consistent, eunuchization became very rampant as a means to get rich and powerful easily. The Chinese imperial eunuchs ended with Sun Yao-ting as the last of the emperors eunuchs. He left an account that though it is embellished, it is of interest as an example of cultural history, (Scholz 2001, 136). It is important to note that what ended was the Chinese and imperial element of eunuchism. Eunuchism itself has existed far out through time into todays era and now has a new connotation depending on the culture and surrounding society of the eunuch. The Roles of Eunuchs in Government Eunuchs had been used as servants in the imperial palace since the late fourteenth century, and from the early fifteenth century, their functions, numbers, and power increased. By the mid-fifteenth century, eunuchs were a well-established element of the Ming bureaucracy, serving in the capital and in the provinces in both military and civil posts. Numbers fluctuated, but early in the sixteenth century, there are said to have been over 12,000 palace eunuchs in Beijing alone (Robinson 2010). The Ming government was divided among six ministries in the 1390s, Personnel, Revenues, War, Punishment, Rites, and Public Works (Tsai 1995). While each ministry had its own minister, they were really under direct control of the emperor, who frequently used his eunuchs to run the state. Constantly locked in adversary positions with the eunuchs, the scholars despised and hated the eunuchs, blaming them for the ills of society (Tsai 1995). Eunuch influence was greatest in periods of weak emperors. During the Ming Dynasty, where the eunuch abuses were most rampant, there were some periods of history where the eunuchs were practically running the empire. As emperors felt that eunuchs represented the best interests of the imperial family at heart, the contact between emperor and bureaucracy was carried entirely through eunuchs (Crawford 1961). Eunuchs were first organized into a Directorate of Palace Servants. But as their functions expanded beyond the inner court and their number increased, they were repeatedly reorganizeduntil after I400, they were finally organized into twenty-four offices. At this point, they had ceased to be entirely personal tools used at imperial discretion and became instead an institutionalized bureaucracy with its own inner development and history (Crawford 1961). In the final organization, there were twelve Directorates, four Offices, and eight Bureaus. Each Directorate had one Director with th e rank of 4a; a senior and junior Vice-director each with the rank of 4b; a senior and junior Assistant director with the rank of 5a; one Recorder with the rank of 6a; and a varying number of lesser officials. The Directorates had charge of such matters as staff supervision, imperial provisions and food, seals, ancient and modern archives, metal tokens given to meritorious statesmen, credentials, instructions, construction of storehouses, weddings, gunpowder, constructionof temples, the imperial insignia and tent, the imperial stables, military tallies and other such items. Some of these Directorates were thus closely associated with the Ministry of War (Crawford 1961). The main contribution of eunuchs was in the field of military and secret service. Emperors used eunuchs as emissaries to foreign countries. In fact, by the end of the Ming Dynasty, what existed of the central military arm was largely in the hands of eunuchs (Crawford 1961). In the end, the eunuchs were less like household servants meddling in state affairs and more like an administrative hierarchy who exercised powers in all areas of government (Tsai 1995). Famous Eunuchs of Ancient China Eunuchs were often seen as the antagonist to the Confucian court officials. Differing in priorities, they had different agendas. While most eunuchs have been depicted negatively and in an antagonistic manner, there were some eunuchs that rose above and became important figures in Chinese history, and there is no other greater eunuch than Zheng He (also Cheng Ho). Zheng He was from the early Ming dynasty and was both a Muslim and a Eunuch. He had won the reputation as a great diplomat and military strategist. Unlike most eunuchs, he was a delegated in the military, in charge of seven official oceanic expeditions, a first in Chinese history. With an armada of 63 ships, Zheng He traveled around the world, first primarily to South East Asia, then eventually to the Middle East and Africa (Willetts 1964). In fact, he was even known to have brought back some African animals such as giraffes, lions, and tigers from the fifth expedition (Willetts 1964). Zheng He died in extreme old age in 144 4. Despite numerous voyages that brought China closer to the world, scholars agree that the voyages actually had no practical results, essentially meaning that it was a waste of money and that from the perspective of the Ming dynasty, it was an absolute waste of resources given that they were not empire builders, Ming did not have a sense of mission (Willetts 1964). This then provides an answer as to why after Zheng Hes final voyage of 1431, there no on longer any naval excursions by the Chinese. But while there were no longer any naval operations afterwards, in the time that Zheng He lived, he was by no means the only eunuch in the high seas (Willetts 1964). In contrast to Zheng He who had the best intentions are the four infamous tyrannical eunuch dictators, Wei ZhongXian in the late Ming, Wang Zhen in the 1440s, Wang Zhi in the 1470s, and Liu Jin in the 1500s (Dillon 1998). Wang Zhen was voluntarily castrated as a youth and entered palace eunuch school. Wang was made Director of Ceremonial when Emperor Ying-tsung ascended. He was killed by an army on its retreat (Crawford 1961). Liu Jin was also voluntarily castrated. He attached himself to a higher eunuch in order to advance, then subsequently took the position. He was put in charge of the Bureau of Cymbals and Gongs. But more than that, he controlled the secret police Eastern Depot. He is considered to be one of the eight tigers (Crawford 1961). Wei is often compared to Yang Lian, a Confucian adviser who late becomes an adversary. Their tales are often contrasted as they both experienced hardship in becoming high officials in the court. Yang Lian had to study and take many licensure exams in order to receive what is equivalent to the doctorate, while Wei ZhongXian had to live castrated and maneuvers his way in the eunuch system (Tsai 1995). As a child, Wei chose castration as a way out of his gambling debt (Crawford 1961). Because of his cunning nature, he was able to work his way into the system and become a grand eunuch in the Ceremonial Directorate of the Ming court. As a palace eunuch, he cheated his superiors and gained advantages by swindling them. But amidst that cruel life, his path into becoming a eunuch was a turbulent one, scarred emotionally, physically, and psychologically. Physically, his hormone levels caused wrinkled skin, stiffened joints, and weak muscles. Eventually, he became evidently more feminine than masculine (Tsai 1995). In order to rise above the ranks, Wei aligned himself only with the most powerful eunuchs and palace women. He worked first in the imperial stable, moving his way up until he became assigned to be the cook for Emperor Wanlis grandson, who later became Emperor Tianqi (Tsai 1995). It was this connection that gained him much of the fame and fortune. It was cooking for Tianqi as well that he met Ke, Tianqis mistress. The teenage Tianqi felt a deep, more than childlike devotion to Mistress Ke. In fact it was Ke who recommended Wei in 1622 to become the grand eunuch in the most powerful Ceremonial Directorate (Tsai 1995). Together with Ke, Wei had an improper and unhealthy influence on the young emperor. Wei received the emperors approval to train a eunuch army, and he was also made director of a secret police establishment called the Eastern Depot (Tsai 1995). He used his position to remove people he deemed undesirable and began a reign of terror by demoting and then murdering his former patron. As Tianqi lived a life of luxury, Wei killed countless number of people, dismissed honorable officials, stole jewelry from the imperial treasure, and acquired riches for his family (Tsai 1995). It was then tha t Yang Lian, now a censor, decided to impeach Wei. While 100 other officials sided with yang in denouncing Wei, Tianqi stood by Wei and ordered the high ranking officials including Yang to be flogged to death (Tsai 1995). It was only upon Tianqis death at the age of 23 that the reign of terror ended. Wei left Beijing with a guard of 800 eunuchs, 1000 horses, 40 wagonloads of jewelry. On his way to a prison outside Nanjing, he took his only and his copse was dismembered and displayed in his hometown as a warning to the public (Tsai 1995). Modern Eunuchs The word modern eunuchs may refer to either of two things: one, a modern eunuch may refer, in literal sense, to people who have been castrated, and two, it may also refer to people who are not the highest ruling body but play a big role in forming the decisions of the said ruling body through their political influence. With regards to the first meaning, it is not surprising that eunuchs still exist today since castration has not been fully ruled out as a punishment for heavy crimes. Reports about the activities and movements of eunuchs are spread out on the news all over the world, and clichà © enough, the world has some good news and bad news about eunuchs. Starting off with bad news so as not to break spirits after lifting them with the good news, news from BBC News South Asia reports that in India, eunuchs actually cut off mans penis. This is according to BBC correspondent in Himachal Pradesh, India, Baldev Chaunan. According to the report, the victim, Sonu, has been working as a drummer with a group of eunuchs, because apparently, dalits in India live by turning up uninvited at weddings, births and other major family events and singing until they are paid enough to go away. The said report also says that the reason why the eunuchs cut off the mans penis was unclear. It is just known fact that Eunuchs in India generally live in self-contained communities, ostracized [sic] by the rest of society. Countering this ruling fact is a news report by Reuters India dated November 10,2006 that reports: Dancing and singing eunuchs are knocking on doors in the Indian City of Patna in a bid to embarrass shopkeepers into paying their taxes. It is further said in the news article that they were hired by the government as a new shock strategy to make tax evaders pay their lot. It has been proven in the report that this strategy has worked, and who knows? It might just be the solution to the tax evasion that has been going on in India for some time. The eunuchs dont go home penniless either, they were promised by the taxmen 4% of the total commission. So the strategy was indeed a win-win case for both parties. It would be pleasing to hear that there still are good news like these once in a while where even the ostracized get to contribute to the betterment of the country. Now the meaning of eunuchs as castrated individuals may, in itself, take a figurative form with the meaning anyone who has lost their balls or sense of manliness. To be straightforward about it, the third sex, especially gays who have lost their balls when they decided that they were women trapped in a mans body, and transsexuals, who have had reconstructions of certain body parts, fall under this classification of modern eunuchs. This is because not only should the physical aspect of a human be considered, what is important to the person should also be considered, for what is a part if its meaning is empty? A mans genital would be just another part of the body if he does not give value to it nor take care of it. From this angle, it could be said that those who belong to the third sex and transsexuals are also eunuchs. Finally, eunuchs have always been known to have influential powers over the ruling forces, so ultimately, for the researchers of this topic, people who are influential enough to make the slightest differences in the decision of the higher authorities are also to be considered as eunuchs. People such as Chiz Escudero who, though he is part of the opposition, which is even the counter force of the administration, makes an impact on the decision that the authorities make and on the moves they execute next. A lot of forces outside the administration are actually making slightest effects on the decrees that the president makes. For example, rich and powerful clans like the Lopezes and Cojuangcos are always taken into consideration in the making of policies although they are not necessarily part of the ruling force itself. They are eunuchs not by appearance, but by essence. Insights and Learnings So in the course of writing this paper about Chinese eunuchs, we, the researchers, have learned a lot and have acquired a lot of insights in relation with eunuchs. And with that, we contest with the thought that the eunuchs rose to power. There can be no rise of they were at the top to begin with. How can I say that they were already at the top when castration was a grave punishment to begin with? and Shouldnt it be that they started from humble beginnings and rose from the ranks? are some of the questions that might grapple with us in this matter. Here we reiterate the point mentioned in the history part of this paper; the part that says that eunuchs were castrated in exchange for death penalty. It also said that they were castrated because of political crimes. There is logic as to why this assumption could be drawn. If what the person has done has been completely barbaric and criminal like stealing and killing, then the government might as well do off without them, but in this case , the government didnt kill the criminals. Why? Because the crimes they have committed were political crimes. They were crimes against the ruling political view, Confucianism. In short, the soon-to-be-eunuchs were actually political analysts in the sense that they were able to find flaws and possibly solutions to the flaws in the government. This is why instead of disposing them; the government was able to use them as political advisors of some sort in the form of what would soon be called eunuchs. They already had this richness in them to begin with, the richness of knowledge of what to do, of whats wrong and how to correct that wrong. They were already powerful in that whatever the emperor couldnt solve, they already had a plan of action in their minds. Ranking was of no relevance. After all, there is no way to measure knowledge in its most raw form. What could be measured is the ratio of intelligence to age or IQ, but that isnt knowledge in itself. More than this insight, we were able to learn a few things in relation with eunuchs. People cant have everything. This is a chip from the clichà ©: nobodys perfect. People cant be rich, famous, intelligent, influential and still have no flaws. We just realized that one way or another, no matter how high up they are, there will always be one thing they lack. Well, in the case of eunuchs, the readers should know by now what the rich, intelligent and influential eunuchs lack. Thats right. Facial hairà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and more. Also, what goes up, must come down, is another learning from this topic about eunuchs. When there is too much yang, yin must sink in. Meaning, there must always be balance. Things will always return to their normal state. They will always try to equalize themselves out. A ball launched high into the sky, no matter the peak height, will always go back to the ground right after. The closer you are to something, the harder it is to see it. The emperors really had a ha rd time solving their problems. It was because they were in too deep that they forgot to look at the bigger picture and how to move the puzzle pieces in that picture. They needed an outsiders perspective to assess and evaluate the situation because they are the ones who are able to see clearly. It is important sometimes to look at the thing as a whole to see what is wrong with it from a different and easier-to-handle angle.

Social And Political Factors: National Curriculum

Social And Political Factors: National Curriculum In understanding the factors that led historically to the formation of the Education National Curriculum, it is important to understand the position of Britain troughout history in the past three centuries in terms of socio-economical structure, political trends, religious climate as well as the position of the country in the international arena, both economically and socially. With these three aspects together, and the different historic events and legislations that took place during the XIX and XX century, it becomes clear the reasons, motivations and necesities that led to the establishement of such curriculum within the already established education structure of the country, as well as its objectives and purposes. The British Government attached little importance to education until the end of the 19th century, however there is evidence of the change in mentality before the end of the century. It all began on 1807 when Samuel Whitbread, a champion of religious and civil rights, and a proponent of a national education system he proposed the abolition of slavery, (1) proposed a new poor law , establishing a free educational system -two years of education for those unable to pay- the measure was of course seen too radical for the time and thus easily defeated in the house of common. (2) This thinking is nurtured mainly to the climate of the time, where higher classes of society had no interest in cultural developement, the relationship that Britain had with other countries was totally vertical, Britain had a reputation and status and has always been more concetrated in colonial adquisitions, external growth and power, Britain was leading the world in industry and commerce, there was a laissez-fair e feeling that education would somehow take care of itself.(3) The Idea of education for the masses remained within the spirit of the times, but it only started to gain real interest on the second half of the 19th century when the commercial and manufacturing supremacy of Britain was in decline in comparisson to other european counterparts (4) it now seemed financiable viable to have educated workforce. At that time, the Church of England was responsible for most schools, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Before 1870, education was largely a private affair, with wealthy parents sending their children to fee-paying schools, and others using whatever local teaching was made available (5). It became clear that education needed to (surpass) that frontier of elite, and be more centrered towards the masses, In the second half of the 19th century, not only Britains supremacy was in decline, but crime, pauperism and social distress increased as well, as a sign of lack of a developed education system, political and social stability were now linked with education of the peo ple (6) It is only until 1870 that we can see real State intervention in the education field, The Education Act of 1870 drawn by William Edward Foster, and thus known as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾the Foster Act , gave birth to the modern education system in England (4,6) (5), at the time the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Robert Lowe, remarked that the government would now have to educate our masters. (7) It can be seen clearly that there was an advancement in mentality towards education of the people and the future of the country; this act stressed four main points : first, the country will be divided into School districts. Second, School Boards were to be elected by ratepayers in each district. Third, School Boards were to examine the provision of elementary education in their district, and make arrangements if necessary. And fourth, school Boards could make their own by-laws, allowing them to to charges fees if necessary. It was an establishement of elementary schools nationwide, not replacing those s chools run and/or erected by the Church or any other independent body, but it supplemented them. (8) Following to the Foster Act, many others followed such as :The Free Education Act 1891 , The , The Voluntary Schools Act 1897, which stresses in areas such as funding and compulsory age leaving, started to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾modernised and forge the education system that we know, Later acts such as The Education Act 1902 , abolished school boards and created Local Education Authorities (LEA) and the 1918 Fischer Act which concentrates on compulsory age of leaving school for Secondary. (5) A well structured Education system was being born in england, driven by the need to have skilled and qualified work force, what followed is the 1944 Education act also know as the Buttler Act which changed the education system for secondary schools implementing a tripartite eduation system and secondary education free for all pupils (9). And thus replacing all previous legislation. 1944 Education Act was an attempt to create the structure for the post-war British education system (10) It only took effect until 1947 after WWII. WWII played an extremely important role in the vision that politicians had on education. In effect, the example set by other european countries in terms of political and social balance everyone else seemed to be doing better than England, mainly because they had better education systems, what stroke the most was the advancement in technology that Germany showoff during the war(13), the astonish organization of its people, the loyalty to the Nazi cause, and the fact that they were all pursuing the same goal. This opened the eyes, not only of the British but to the world. The Nazis were aware that education would create loyal Nazis by the time they reached adulthood, schools were to play a critical part in developing a loyal following for Hitler indoctrination and the use of Nazi propaganda. The sole purpose of this educational structure was to create a future generation that was blindly loyal to Hitler and the Nazis. (11) This historic event let to favouring the formation of a natio nal curriculum, not to follow Hitlers steps per se, but learn from the education experience, however, there is the doubt and fear of political indoctrination, in the formation of such curriculum. There was however a strong motivation to educate the people, produce better citizens and better workers, the British were now more concentrated in quality of the labour rather than quantity. (12) The real revolution in education legislation came in 1988 with the education reform act, which is so far the most important since Butlers act, with this reform was born the National Curriculum(14), so far the most important provision, giving an estatury entiletlement to learning for all, regardless of gender, race, or special situation, determining what should be taught, how, and when, it also sets attainment targets for learning and how this should be asses. (15) The British goverment finally understood that it is important to organize education in the country without letting anyone out, they also understtod the need of educated people, not only in the workforce but as well educated persons, nurturing with moral and values, education became the reflexion of a whole society and society is what makes a country, We have seen the past of Education in the British society and how little importance it had in times when power and wealth seemed the most important, we have also seen how a laissez-faire policy on education did not bring any strengh to society or feeling of collectivity, it is seen as well the different motivations and changes in mentality towards education for the masses throutout history, many pieces of legislations and acts have been drafted in order to secure educated generations to come. Knowing as well the position of power, influence and wealth that England has always represented in the global arena, and following the repercusions and experiences from WWII, it was just a matter of time for England to start thinking in investing in its people, in creating a society that reflects the wealth and power that it endevours, and that society is built throughout education, and the creation of the National curriculum sets the criteria to the delivery of such education aware and responsi ve to changes in society and the economy, aware of the need to nourrish a multi-ethnical society in the spiritual, moral, social and cultural areas adapting to the needs and demands of the time. Society reflects a nation, and a nation reflects society, the National curriculum allows today to educate both, the future nation, and the society to come. B- demonstrate understanding of the National Curriculum by showing how it makes provisions for meeting the holistic needs of all learners. The art of holistic education lies in its responsiveness to the diverse learning styles and needs of evolving human beings. (16) Having an holistic approach means taking into account and consideration the complete person, both, physically and psycologicaly, in education sector this is based in giving sense to identity to every learner, a purpose in life and connections to a collectivity. The National Curriculum in Enlgand promotes develoment in many different areas that can be qualified as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾holistic in the sense that their purpose is to foster a balanced education in the knowledge or academic field and the pastoral or more psychological care of each pupil as well. The National Curriculum makes various provisions to meet this holisctic needs such as the promotion of spiritual, moral, social and cultural attitudes and understandings, also promoting key skills, thinking skills and other important aspects(17) that will enable every pupil to develop independent reasoning and thinking, in order to make decisions and be an active and correct member of this society, both intelectually and moraly. We will go throught this provisions to demonstrate how the National Curriculum aim to meet the holistic needs of every learner regardles . In a rapidly changing society, it is important to have a curriculum that will adapt to its sudden cahnges, that is why the four main purposes of the curriculum are set in a way that will enable everyone to be responsive to the needs of the time, these four main purposes are, first: to establish an entitlement of areas of studies and develop of knowledge. Second, establishing standars of performance and assesment in order to examine the learning progress. Third, promoting continuty and coherence that will enable learners to facilitate transitions in a fast moving society and fourth, promoting public understanding leaving to the public the right to discuss about educational issues, giving the collectivity confidence in the openensees of its work. By this, it is intendend to guarantee to the collectivity effective ways to meet the individual needs of every child by clearly and transparently establishing this four main purposes in education. Being a very important aspect taking into account the age of the learners, the National Curriculum has been developed in a cognitive style, this is with the porpuse of creating a more balanced and relaxed way of learning, meeting the needs of each pupil at the correct stage of their developement. That is why the National curriculum its organized and establishes key stages, every Children develop at different rates and this is important to not let anyone behind, and also to ensure the same standards of teaching and learning across the nation. This rigourous aspect of the Curriculum intends to meet the needs of the learners holistically, by being aware of the external and internal influences of a whole generation in a country, giving coherence in what is being taught and taking into account the aging factor. Anotherimportant component of the National curriculum is Religious education; on despite of the fact that parents are free to withdrawn their children from these, it remains a basic component of the curriculum it is considered to make a distinctive contribution to the School curiculum by developing the pupils knowledge and understanding of religious beliefs, by which pupils will consider and respond to a variety of important questions related to thier own spiritual developement, develop identity and comon belongings and values in the comunity(17). Great britain has been mainly christian, but other principal religions presented in Britain and must be taken into account. The spiritual aspect of a human being plays an important role in its developement and the National curriculum provides guidelines to foster this, in a multiethnic society. Other Aspects that promotes the national curriculum are the developent of skills. In effect, the National curiculum promotes Key skills and thinking skills as part of the learning experience. Key skills are intended to help learners in understanding how can they improve and perfom better in their own education, these are embeded in the National curriculum, in all subjects, pupils will be taught skills such as : communication, Application of numbers, information and technology, working with others, improving own learning and problem solving. Skills that will not only nurture their academic education but will enrich their interaction with the outside world. Thinking skills, on the other hand complement the latter and will give pupils all the tools to have creative and analytical thinking, reasoning deducting and evaluating skills, allowing pupils to understand the why and how of their environment. The National Curriculum promotes financial aspects, as is important nowadays to be aware of the changes in the economy and be aware and informed costumers, to make inteligent financial decisions aware of the responsabilities and rights as knowledgeable costumers. In order to do it so, the national curriculum Promotes the adquisition of, financial capability knowledge, entreprise and entreprenual skills that will enable pupils to have some foundation knowledge if they consider as a career path, and the promotion od education for sustainalbe development, which encourage pupils to understand and value the taking part in how we do things individually and in collectively. We have seen how in order to adapt to a changing environement the National curriculum has set criteria to meet these changes and how the age factor is an important issue in the delivering of the education that the national curiculum promotes, being aware that as human beings we develope at different rates. It also takes into consideration Religious education, which enlighten mind and soul in the understanding of ourselfs as beings. With all this clear and set up as a statury entitlement for pupils in england, it is clear that the National curriculum aims to the delivery of an academic and pastoral education in a balanced style and thus having an holistic approach, giving chnces to all learners to develop at thier rate and providing order and criteria to educators in order to deliver such education, the face of the nation relies on the developemtn of their students, and its important for a nation to have educated people in knowledge and sound in mind, ready to make part of a multiethn ical society. C- Understand the strenghts and weaknesses of the National Curriculum The National Curriculum is the most essential and important tool for teachers and it has been a revolutionary approach to education in this nation. Delopping Differentiated lesson planning skils: Learning outcome a) :In demonstrating understanding of the key areas of a lesson plan, A lesson plan is a teachers detailed description of the course of instruction for an individual lesson, it should encourage learners to progress and motivate them to improve in their work, it should also excite interest and commitment and willing to continue the learning. To achieve this results, it is very important to have a clear understanding of the key areas of a lesson plan, their purpose, their significance and impact in the lesson itself and very importantly, be proactive in the adaptation of varied approaches in addressing all learners needs in each key area of the lesson in order to differentiate every learning need, creating an environment conducive to learning for all. A quality lesson plan must be a reflection of the school vision as well as philosophy and obviously integrating the National Curriculum guidelines both in the pastoral and academics, making provisions for pupils different learning needs, these should not be time-consuming and should become a teachers second nature. A well composed lesson plan allows any person educated in the subject to deliver a lesson without any further details, just using the lesson plan as a guide. There are six key areas in a lesson plan. 1) General Background: is the detailed information about the lesson, such as : date, Year group, classroom number, unit of work, subject, support available, number of SEN pupils, risk assessment, links to National Curriculum and type of pupils (mix-abilities, mono ethnical, multi-ethnic, etc) all these information will enable the teacher to know, What, Where, and Who, is he going to teach and by knowing these details, the teacher can then adapt or create teaching resources accordingly. 2) Lesson Objective: What do you want your students to learn as a result of the lesson? In a nutshell, the answer to this question is a lesson objective. A Lesson objective should be clear, realistic and measurable, always be aware of what grade level the lesson plan is being put in place for.(page 20) it shows the keywords of the lesson, the teacher must know; where the students are heading, how are they reaching there and know when they have arrived (page 34) A lesson objective is what the teacher wants to achieve with the pupils, these must be coherent and always within the framework of the National Curriculum programme of study. 3) Learning outcomes: is what the learner will be able to do as a result of the learning experience. They vary depending on the pupils ability, learning outcomes are a tool to examine learning process in certain pupils and know where to improve, they should be differentiated and always tailored in what the pupils will achieve, it is important to use formats such as: all pupils will be able to Most pupils will be able to Some pupils will be able to. Teachers should prepare or adapt resources beforehand at different levels to allow pupils to advance at their rate, also encourage students and share the objectives in the classroom so that they can make decisions about their own improvement, the teacher must of course apply many different strategies to achieve differentiation. According to Bloom Learners should benefit from: cognitive, affective and psycho-motor domains, that is why is very important for teachers to prepare a large variety of resources to enable a benefit learning, thinking about the learning styles of the pupils and adapting all of these thoroughly. The teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person (multiple intelligence H.Gardner) . 4) Starter: it can be defined as an attention grabber, teachers as part of their lesson delivery must be creative and think in ways to grab and incite attention to the lesson, a starter is defined by many as a fun based activity that will ignite curiosity. Creativity can be in any form, the starter should be brief, allowing pupils mind to get interest in the subject making them want to know more. Starters can be linked as well with previous subjects to carry on continuity of the lesson, always bearing in mind to use as much as possible all learning styles, also keeping in mind strategies to grab the attention of SEN pupils who might not be as excited as his peers in knowing more about the lesson, always have differentiation as a second nature. 5) Main Lesson: Is the period of time in which learners are taught about a particular subject or taught how to perform a particular activity, In other words, is the delivery of the lesson by the teacher; the transfer of knowledge, it should be in an oderly fashion, using as much teaching methods and ressources as possible in order to integrate all learning styles and learning intelligences (H gardner). It is the duty of the teacher to build some kind of motivation from the part of his pupils into the lesson and thus, enabeling an enthusiastic learning. The main lesson can include: Videos, peer talk, debates, discussions, visits from people into the classroom. There should be a variety of student activities, they should be engaged, active, not passive in order to reinforce the learning experience, this activity part takes place soon after the learning experience. 6) The Plenary: The plenary helps Students to have an overall picture of what they are learning; What have we learned today from this/these activities? Pupils usually reflect their difficulties and doubts, these can be discussed and help clear common difficulties; Summary notes can be given at the end. After completion of work it is important to go over any common difficulties with the group, it is important to ask for feedback from the class as a whole in order to summarize what has been learned, the plenary can be a very interesting part of a lesson for inexperience or new teachers as own teaching performance can be asses to see if the primary lesson objective is being met, teachers can then realize what is going wrong in the delivery of their own teaching through the plenary. Lesson plan is a rigorous method to structure what is going to occur in the lesson. Lesson plan is an art not a Science, (442 teaching today) Which lead to the conclude that a lesson plan is the key for a succesful lesson, planning carefully and thourufully each lesson, taking into account the needs of the students, encounter unexpected situations, always thinking in preparing too much because at the end of the day: fail to plan is plan to fail. B) Explain how a lesson plan can meet the needs of individual learners: Inclusion, differentiation, diversity, entitlement, equal opportunities, special needs, personalised learning, ensuring equal opportunities All of these concepts are highlighted strongly to trainee teachers and always brought up as if it was the most important concepts in teaching; and the reality is indeed that those concept are the most important and the first that should be bared in mind at all times when wanting to teach in an UK classroom, concepts that must become an automatism in the teaching profession. The UK is hitherto a multi-ethnic and cultural society that has put equality of rights at the top, reason why education must reflect the same vision and values. But how can a lesson plan meet the needs of individual learners in a classroom where every individual might have a learning need? It will be illustrated the issue of inclusive education and mix abilitiy in the classroom and how a well prepared lesson plan can meet the needs of individual learners and have an inclusive approach. In 1978 Baroness Warnock in the early 1980s laid the foundation for the Statement of Special Education Needs: a legally binding assesment guaranteeing ressources for children with severe needs, she denounced as well segregation in the schools and coined the term SEN. The principle of Inclusion is that children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) or a Disability have the right to be educated in Mainstream Schools alongside other children from their community rather than being educated in Special Schools(cita). Main education needs are the following: Cognitive and learning difficulties (dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia) Autistic spectrum difficulties Behavioural, social and emotional difficulties Sensory and physical (Visual and hearing impairments) Interaction difficulties (EAL-English) Inclusion can be seen as a top up for integration, is about removing all possible barriers that avoid development, learning and participation in the school, and that includes drafting every lesson plan in this fashion. Teachers can always consider his pupils special needs and integrate appropiate strategies and resources on his lesson plans, they should not be necessarirly time or money consuming and should be, of course effective. There are however situations in which the need of the pupil is severe and such an approach can be inadequate in meeting certain pupils needs, in these cases, special provisions and IEPs Individual Education Plan, can help the concerned pupil in achieveing identified targets in his learning, and thus ameliorating by identifying his learning style. IEP will be explained more in depth in section (D) of this module. As a result of inclusion, integration and diversity in the classroom, teachers face themselves with the challenging task of delivering lesson to mix-abilities pupils. Education in the UK is dealt in a cognitive progression (citacion), The National Curriculum sets targets and attainment levels, their porpuse is to differeantiate that pupils have different abilities, they all have differences in learning styles, different ways of thinking and preferences, Hence the reason why teachers must integrate sustainable and measurable learning challengeces, integrating a variety of activiy for each learning and ability group in order to extend their abilities. An example would be as illustrated in annex where, as shown in this lesson plan for year 3, teacher introduce all VAK learning styles into his lesson plan, making as well provisions and arrangements for students who might demonstrate a lack of inclusion to the mainstream lesson, the teacher had the previous acknoledgemt about his classroom, knowing that he has two statemented pupils, an autistic and an ADHD. Teacher has made provisions for a rich lesson in ressources and VAK styles (citacion), taking into account the fact tthat they will be pushed to develop their way of learning and understanding, challenged to carry on their learning in mainstream at the same time that their peers , this will give confidence to them, encouraging, making them part of the lesson as a whole, inluding them, integrating them into the lesson, which is exactly what the National Curriculum says. Teachers should understant of course, how far to push and how, understand the limitations of the learners. When a teacher sees a sign of alarm e.g, a pupil left behind and lost in the lesson, is the teachers duty to have made previous provisions and take inmediate action to help metting that particular pupils learning need. Teacher can first, as part of his lesson, expect this situations arising and have a back up plan to support, they should be effective but not exhausting and consuming that would distract the teacher from the rest of the pupils (see annex special provisions) drafting an IEP in cases where there is a genuine strong difficulty, its the tool will allow us in identifying the rot of these difficulties as well as in understanding how to reach this learner, what is his learning style ? and the special provisions that will be done for him, would be discovered, and easier to implement in the future. See IEP (section d of this module) We must not forger that as teacher, we will have the opportunity to encounter many gifted and talented pupils, who themselves, happened to have a learning need, in fact, if as teacher we concentrate too much in delivering a lesson objective without preparing more in depth ressources and knowledge, these students will not be benefeting of and appropriate education, these pupils demonstrate leadership, initiative, creativitenes, high level of practical skills, so there must be provisions done to meet these demanding needs as the group is achieveng as well in its many different abilities. Research and observations from educators has led to a large variety of teaching methods, research done by Professor John Hattie concluded that successful methods share three caractheristics: They set challenging tasks, students and teacher get informative feedback and that the teaching was constructivist. Concluding that after all the teaching procces should include both parties constatntly evolving (Student Teacher) and have a dialogue approach. Learning from studies done about education will enable teachers in many different ways about delivering an inclusive education.Teachers must make sure to adquire as much academic knowledge regarding inclusion as possible and apply in many different ways, being an energetic proactive person willing to enthusiastically and objectively deliver a lesson plan with the solely objective in mind (in the mind of the teacher), of making that lesson objective for the day create great learning outcomes from the part of the pupils, and repeat that every day. c. Be able to adopt an inclusive lesson plan for a mix-ability group. D) Be able to demonstrate understanding of an IEP. When do we write an IEP? More than just understanding an IEP, knowing when to apply one is the real challenge. When the expected results in the pupil learning are not met, and there are signs of alarm, an IEP is an early intervention. IEPs are working documents for all staff that must be written in a jargon free language understandable for all. In it, a structured planning documentation to help students achieve identified targets. It ditacte what should be teach and the criteria; setting realistic targets that should be assessable and understandable. They should be teaching and learning plans setting out what, how and how often particular knowledge, understanding and skills should be taught. Using additional or different activities from the mainstream lesson. It contains the steps and teaching requirements needed to help students achieve identified targets.(inclusive edu) Porpuses of IEPs are mostly ocused in addresing an identified learning need in order to discover proper ways on how to meet the pupil;s learning need, and how to address it. As a result of an IEP, teachers have two tools: early action plus and school action plus. The former, focuses on what provisions can the school make to help the pupil using internal resources in the school, the latter, is intervention of external parties from the school that can address more appropiately e.g psychologists, police, etc (cita) An IEP should include: Short term targets, teaching strategies, provisions, revision date, succes or exit criteria, outcomes. Everything should be realistic and integral to classroom and curriculum planning. Targets should be achievable for both pupil and teacher, they should be in small steps so that the succes is clearly visible to the pupil as he will become more self-confident, the challenges will be made rigourous. Parents should always be informed and communicate with them, they are a great source of information and help. Pupils informaito nshould be communicated to all staff inless issues of confidentiallity should be considered. However if the need is severe or complex, all staff should be informed, record progress and share with parents al the information. Its important to note that one-to-one tuition will not always be the best way: an alternative and most appropitate way will be providing differentiated or additional learning material, equipment, peer or adult support. As a result of an IEP, concerne pupils will be monitored and will benefit from differentiated or additional learning that in some cases led the educators the task to make the pupil achieve targets, an IEP is the first step in cases when educators are identifying a genuine learning difficulty requiring a statementing process, informaton about the 5- Classroom behavious management A) Understand different strategies for dealing with childrens behaviour in the classroom and their link with different theories on behaviour. Classroom management is how the teacher delivers the curriculum and the environment at which students will learn (cita pag55 mana). Throughout time, q lqrve variety of theories and strategies about behaviour have been made available, thanks

Measuring Random Appraisal Error in Commercial Real Estate :: essays research papers

Recent empirical studies imply that most appraisal error is nonrandom, which suggests that strategies that advocate portfolio assembly over individual property selection may be defective. Each step of the appraisal process involves an unknown amount of estimation error. The combination of these errors is unlikely to produce a perfect, error-free estimate of value. Thus, appraisal error is virtually unavoidable. Investors need reasonable estimates of value when buying, selling, or retaining commercial property, so an unknown amount of appraisal error adds uncertainty to the decision-making process. Despite the uncertainty, investors have learned to make allowances for appraisal error in their decision-making processes. The way in which real estate investors interpret appraisal errors has a material effect upon the decisions that they make. In particular, the predominant belief among real estate professionals is that appraisal error is random. This belief materially influences investor attitudes toward portfolio management and the valuation process itself. Lack of understanding of the relative magnitudes of random and nonrandom components of total appraisal error has co nsequences for optimal portfolio strategies. For example, investors who deem the bulk of total appraisal error to be random may reasonably conclude that error in estimates is beyond their control or influence. To minimize total portfolio valuation error, such investors may assemble large, diverse portfolios even though the cost of owning an array of properties of various types and in various locations is expensive. On the other hand, if the bulk of total appraisal error is nonrandom, investors would do better to pay attention to improving value estimates on each property rather than hoping that the errors in values of a large pool of properties will offset one another. In particular, investors should institute valuation controls and procedures to minimize the errors in each valuation of individual portfolio assets. Such controls might include obtaining multiple simultaneous estimates, changing appraisers for each periodic revaluation, or increasing the frequency of valuations. This conclusion becomes particularly significant in light of studies like Miles that determine that the typical magnitude of total appraisal error is about ten percent of appraised value. Information in three recent empirical studies provides evidence that previous appraisal research has been mistaken in assuming most appraisal error to be random. The demonstration that most appraisal error is nonrandom should encourage real estate investors to focus additional attention on individual asset selection and valuation at the expense of portfolio assembly. Estimates of Total Appraisal Error

Dominicans And Afro-americans Essays -- essays research papers

In America today, there is a large and diverse African-American population. Within this population, there are several ethnic groups. The other ethnic group similar to Afro-Americans is Dominicans. Not only are they both minorities, but they also look similar as well. Both Dominicans and Afro-Americans are originally from Africa, but their slave masters separated them into two different cultures. African-Americans was African slaves of Americans, and Dominicans were African slaves of the Spanish. Hevesi of the New York Times says, "Dominican and Afro-Americans culture was formed from one ethnicity, Africans" (Hevesi 86). As a person of these two ethnic groups, I have two perceptions of my dual ethnicity. Among Afro-Americans’ and Dominicans’ culture, language, history and values, there are large differences, but there are also several similarities. I will compare and contrast these two ethnic groups which are within me. Dominicans and African-Americans are similar in their African origin, but they are different â€Å"in their newfound slavery-induced cultures.† Dominicans were Africans mixed with Spanish culture. Through slave settlements, Dominicans were settled in Hispanola. In Hispanola, Dominicans were influenced between two ethnic groups. As a new ethnic group formed, their African traits were mixed with Spanish traits (Saillant-Torres 131). African America history was African culture mixed with American culture. As a group, slave masters made their voyage to Africa, took slaves, and formed a group called Afro-Americans. African culture was integrated into Western civilization. Most Africans were slaves in the Southern part of North America. Arnold Rose points out; "Negro’s are not accepted in America" (94). Some Dominicans were settled in America. Many live in New York in a city called Spanish Harlem. Today, over 100 million Dominicans live there. The histories of these two ethnic groups have very little similarity, but the African influence is one unifying force. The languages of these two ethnic groups are completely different. Dominicans speak Spanish and Afro-Americans speak English. Dominicans don't speak casual Castillan Spanish. They speak Spanish with a twist of African influences. Gleijeses says, "Dominicans don't speak true Spanish, so they are not treated as Spanish† (7). African-Americans speak English with a diffe... ...ning their ethnic identity and becoming part of American culture. I view Dominicans and Afro-Americans similarly because I am a person of these two ethnic groups. Most of the time people perceive me as Black and other time’s people call me Puerto Rican. I know I shouldn’t get angry, but I feel like others don’t respect me and are trying to label me. My mother is Black and my father is Dominican. Most Dominicans think that it is an odd mixture, but they don’t realize that they have the same origins from Africa. In a way it is hard to be a part of two ethnic groups, but it is very interesting. In my life, I had a lot of criticism from both sides of my family. My mother doesn’t like my father’s family and the feeling is mutual. So, I have many problems with my race, but I am still very proud. I always try to unite my family to become equal. In America today, I feel every ethnic group should see themselves as equal. Regardless of their heritage, they are still Americans. So, I feel any racism between Americans is very ignorant. In conclusion, I think difference is good, but similarities are better, because you find out the things that you share and how you can relate to one another.

Case Study Cyworld Creating And Capturing Value In Social Network

Case Study Cyworld Creating And Capturing Value In Social Network Group Members: Syed Hasan Zaman (20738) Muhammad Wasim (20735) Mansoor Owais Talha Qadri Question 1: Why do people use social network? Answer: Peoples generally use the social networks for the purpose of managing their social lives, also it includes to satisfy the need of socialization of each individual which is required to be satisfied and the social networks are the most commonly used medium now a days in order to satisfy such need.Comparing it to the other mediums such as emailing, messaging or calling the reason for the preference of the social networking sites is because that the audience in the social network is large enough also it gives the opportunity to socialize with other peoples around the globe and making new friends and connections and getting to know peoples, cultures and values around the globe Question 2: How can you segment Cyworld user?Which segment should Cyworld target? How it can create value fo r users in this segment? Answer: The segmentation of user of Cyworld are the teens and the generation in early twenties as the largest user group of Cyworld is the users comprised of the these two age segmentation. The reasons for these segmentation to be attracted towards Cyworld is that there is no membership fee and the generation is neither able to pay huge membership or reactivation feesCyworld should target the youth as they are most interested generation segment in socialization and who are well aware of using such sites and medium to communicate, contact and maintain their relationships with others and also seek to communicate with peoples around the globe in other regions For creating value for its users, Cyworld initiated with the tactics of introducing the idea of creating and managing minihompys by way of buying the virtual items and decorating the minihompys but later Cyworld observed that the users are getting bored of this activity and realized that the Cyworld will n ot be able to capture justified value on providing such services.After surveying all the factors the Cyworld decided to launch Home2 which is in fact the upgraded version of minihompys but this have the option of sharing photos and many other things. This created more value for the users of the Cyworld and shortly around 80,000 users of the Cyworld migrated to the Home2 as it is something new as it was a blend of blogging and minihompys. Question 3: Which is most valuable for Cyworld – An active user, a user who spends a lot of money with Cyworld or a user with a lot of connection? Answer: The most valuable for Cyworld includes the one who are an active user of the site as they are the potential customer of the organization.Considering the fact of generating revenues, the most revenue generation activity for Cyworld was the Paid Items which concludes the 72% of all the revenue generated by the organization but as a matter of fact the organization can only attain such revenue when item are being sold and the people will only buy if they can show that to others on the site as the items are not tangible neither moveable rather they are all virtual so the only value for the customers is the status regime they show by means of placing it on their own minihompys. The users with a lot of connection is considerably valuable for the company because these are not only permanent users of the site as they won’t leave the site because this will cause them to leave the connections they have and this makes them not only the potential customer but also they can attract others to join the site and can increase the users f Cyworld Question 4: How is Cyworld different from Facebook or Myspace? How these social networking sites are differ from other larger websites such as Amazon, Yahoo and Youtube? Answer: Cyworld is different from Facebook or Myspace as on these social sites it is assumed that we are talking to a public at large (for example writing on a firendâ⠂¬â„¢s wall) but the reality is we are still communicating with a specific group of peoples (i. e. only the friends or connections of that person can see what we posted on his wall). The other reason is Cyworld came with the idea of minihomphys where are Facebook and Myspace lacks such availability of option.The websites such as Amazon, Yahoo or Youtube are specific functioned sites like Amazon is used for online shopping, yahoo is a general purpose site which includes features from offering sale purchase to news reading material and many other areas and Youtube is specifically used for watching videos or sharing it, in comparision to Cyworld, Cyworld offers the sharing of ideas, minihompys, videos, photos, music and many other things and this variety of option differentiate Cyworld from the sites such as Facbook, Myspace, Amazon, Yahoo and Youtube Question 5: What should be Cyworld business model – paid items, mobile networking or advertising? Should Cyworld explore any othe r area of opportunity? Answer:Cyworld started generation of revenue from the services of offering paid items and it constitute 72% of the revenues generated by the company but forecasting the future and analyzing the user behavior and trend Cyworld came to the conclusion that the people in future will not be much interested in purchasing virtual items for real money which can give them not much of value and satisfaction and the company realizes that the revenues will drop if the company sticks to the model of Paid Items. After considering all the facts the company came to the conclusion that the company should migrate from paid items model to the advertising models as followed by Facebook and many other sites. Its hard for Cyworld to make its own position in the market where the websites such as Facebook and Myspace are handling the maximum market share

A Cybernetic Approach to Controlling Health Problems

For several decades, health issues have increased by more than 8.5% each year. According to a recent study conducted by the center for Disease Control and Prevention, 65% of US adults are either overweight or obese. The rate of diabetes are increasing in the United States, with a 27 percent increase seen in the last five years. The high cost of health care also poses a major threat to the nation's economy. However, health problems can be prevented to a large extent by controlling people's lifestyle. Group discussions and conversations may help people to adopt a healthy way of living. Therefore, Cybernetics which is the study of conversation/communication and control/regulation can be used to help solve this problems. This study aims at using cybernetics as a model for controlling health problems. Addiction In developed countries of the world like USA, where the literacy rate is above 95%, people know that leading a healthy lifestyle removes the risk of chronic health issues to a considerable margin. However they most times do not adopt a healthy way of living. Why? Addiction has ruined the healthy life style of people. For example- people may be addicted to sleeping and do not exercise, addicted to eating foods with high calories that causes them obesity and make them prone to heart problems. Addiction is a condition in which a consistent desire/craving to repeat an addicted behavior exceeds the ability to rationally stop doing so. When the more you have, the more you seem to need to achieve the same effect or result. This effect can be displayed as a positive feedback loop where the want continues expanding within the loop.Some background about feedback loops – Feedback loops are of two forms: negative feedback loop and positive feedback loop. Negative feedback loops strives towards balance and stasis by subtracting error with each cycle. A good example of negative feedback loop is homeostasis, the body's system for keeping itself chemically and temperature balanced. Positive feedback loops, by comparison, add the variations of each cycle. As a result they can become potentially dangerous as their effect mount with each event. Hypothermia, shock, heatstroke are examples of positive feedback.Figure-1 models addiction (nicotine addiction) as a positive feedback. The desire for smoking continues to increase in the loop for achieving the same level of satisfaction. The first day, Bob needs to smoke once and get satisfied. The second day, he needs to smoke twice to get the same level of satisfaction. Gradually, his cravings and urge to smoke increases along with the frequency.Controlling the Uncontrollable(addiction)The graph above (Figure-1) indicates how the addiction continue to expand in a positive feedback loop. Also, Bateson's examination of alcohol addiction contended that the very attempt to regain discretion, to be a â€Å"commander of one's own spirit†, added to the heightening of the alcoholism. Moreover, the Twelve Step Program of Alcoholics Anonymous-which has been effectively adjusted to a huge number of addictive practices, offers recuperation by â€Å"surrendering† that is, by stopping to deliberately try to stop the addiction. Subsequently, the person who is addicted does not have an essential variety to control addiction.At the point when Addiction becomes uncontrollable, how can it be controlled? Ludwig's research on Alcoholics mind demonstrates that â€Å"developing the right mind frame† (sufficient inspiration) for sobriety improves the probability that an individual can figure out how to resist his addiction .Sufficient inspiration or adequate motivation can solve the puzzle of addiction as an uncontrollable event. The diagram beneath demonstrates the cybernetic approach to deal with controlling health issues by inspiring individuals to follow a sound way of life (work out, yoga, healthy food and so on.), that is abstaining from an unhealthy way of life.Reward/Incentive SystemPeople have various needs including monetary needs, physiological needs, safety needs and esteem needs. An individual can be motivated for performing an activity using proper incentives which may help in fulfilling some of his needs. A reward system could be a web application like Weight Watchers or an organization such as a health club. Below is a model of an incentive system used in motivating a person to exercise regularly. The model also shows that the system can keep refining or modifying the incentive system to make sure that the user is always motivated.Group Affiliation/FriendsGroups, friends and circle of relatives assist in controlling addictions and regulating the manner people live. People develop trust, care and similarity in a group that offer intellectual strength for controlling their cravings. It has additionally been proved that the group association programs offer long- term remedy for addiction in comparison to short-term remedy provided through medication therapy. Self-assist programs like Alcoholics anonymous, rational healing or women for Sobriety, assist in gaining control over addiction through assisting the affected person to integrate into a self-assist group. Trust Trust is a system-related concept and that is a constantly evolving state of information acquisition, processing and feedback. Figure-4 demonstrates the system model of trust between two actors (trustor and trustee). The trustor continually accesses the behavior of the trustee against his mental model of trustworthiness, which results in increased trust if the behavior matches with his mental model otherwise decreased trust. Trustworthiness relies on three variables which relate to perception about the person to be relied on: competence, integrity and benevolence. ‘Competence' is the perceived potential of the trustee, as measured through indicators which includes training or credentials, experience, and reliable past performance. ‘Integrity' is the degree to which the trustee is considered to perform with honesty, fairness, and consistency of actions and words. ‘Benevolence' concerns the extent to which the trustee demonstrates care and consideration for people he or she interacts directly or indirectly. In addition to the above-recognized antecedent variables, trust also relies on the ‘context' within which the trustor and trustee are embedded. It could affect the extent to which the trustee is rated on antecedent variables particularly competence. For instance, a person may be perceived as competent in one context but no longer in another. Furthermore, it is essential to differentiate between Interactions among unfamiliar others and ongoing interactions among familiar others for trust. In a social system, trust could be unidirectional or bi-directional. Also, trust may be commutative.After the developement of trust, the trustor (Alice) feels confident and becomes willing to take actions based on the suggestions, actions and decisions of the trustee (Bob) to an extent proportional to the trust level in the trustee. Now, when Bob says that he controlled his blood sugar level by following the recipes from the diabetic cook-book, Alice feels confident the same recipes in the diabetic cook-book works and she is now motivated to follow them too. It also gives her a social proof of the reliability of the recipes from the diabetic cook-book. Figure-6 is the conversation model of this trust and social proof scenario between Alice and Bob.CareCare is also a continously evolving state of information aquisition, processing and feedback.Similarity, trust, understanding and reciprocity make the important variables. It is also dependent on context and familiarity/relationship between individuals. Below is a figure which shows a model of care between Alice and Bob and how care helps them for abstinence. Bob's behavior is matched to Alice's mental model of a person she would like to care for. If there is a positive match,then the care for Bob increases otherwise it decreases. When there is a match, she cares about what Bob's expectations are from her. She feels a sense of responsibility/accountability for Bob's expectations because she does not want to disappoint him. Similarly, Bob also does a behavior assessment of Alice against a mental model of a person she would like to care for. Its also important to note that both may have different perceptions or mental models of the persons they may like to care for. Also, care may be unidirectional as well. Now when Bob makes a suggestion to Alice about losing weight, she feels responsible/ accountable for losing weight as she cares about Bob. Similarly, Bob feels responsible/accountable for not smoking when Alice asks him to quit smoking.Figure 7: Care/Accountability/ResponsibilitySimilarityIn comparism to trust and care, similarity also is a constantly evolving state of information acquisition, processing and feedback. The antecedent variables for similarity might include mental attitude, behavior, hobbies, age gender and race.The figure below shows how similarity motivates Bob for exercising frequently because he gets competitive and inspired by Alice.The table below summarizes Trust, care and similarity. Antecedent Variables MotivationTrust Competence, Integrity, Benevolence Willing to act on the basis of words, actions anddecisions of anotherCare Similarity, Understanding, Trust, Reciprocity Accountability,ResponsibilitySimilarity Mindset, hobbies, age, gender, race Competitiveness,InspirationFigure 9: Summary for Trust, Care and SimilarityAlternative model for Accountability, Responsibility, Competitiveness and collaboration in a self-help group.